Monitoring of air pollution within the CMA dates back to 1958. Use was made of
"smog" monitors. These are the standard bubblers measuring soiling index
(expressed as smoke) and sulphur dioxide. The results from these instruments
are usually used to determine long term trends. However, examining the reading
published in the annual report of the MOH in 1973 as indicated below it is clear
that the results reflect high SO2. This is attributed to the conversion and operation
of the Dock Road power station.

SMOG STATIONS: Monitoring of air pollution within the CMA dates back to 1958.
Use was made of smog monitors. These are the standard bubblers measuring
soiling index (expressed as smoke) and sulphur dioxide. The results from these
instruments are usually used to determine long term trends. However, examining
the reading published in the annual report of the MOH in 1973 as indicated below
it is clear that the results reflect high SO2. This is attributed to the conversion and
operation of the Dock Road power station.

Fig 1. TOTAL NUMBER OF PEAK READINGS FOR TWO AND THREE-DAY AVERAGE
FOR SULPHUR DIOXIDE IN MICROGRAMS PER CUBIC METRE

SO2mg/m3       100-150           150-200   200-250   250-300   300-350   Over 350 1969 91 18 7     1   1970 65 14 4 2         1971 65 15 3 1 1     1972 103 62 21 3 2 2 1973 48 14

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The data recorded by these instruments were again used many years later
when elevated readings of SO2 were registered during the sulphur fire at
the Strand during December 1997.These instruments are still in use at 16
sites within the CMA. This number includes the recent expansion of the
monitoring system by adding bubbler monitors in the Oostenberg, Helderberg
and South Peninsula municipal areas. The highest 3 or 4 day average values presently obtained from these monitors are in the order of 50 ug/m3.Since
1980 the smoke filter papers of the bubbler monitors have been analysed to determine the concentration of lead in the atmosphere. These results
proved valuable in the research project by Dr Y E von Schirnding during 1996. Subsequently the lead in petrol was reduced. The lead concentration in the
air followed the same pattern, as can be seen in fig.1.

CONTINUOUS AIR POLLUTION MONITORING: To assess real-time concentrations of
pollution the continuous monitoring of critical pollutants is of greater value. These
instruments measure the concentration of ambient air pollutants in 20 second scans and
values can be expressed in short term (10 min), or one hour, twenty four hour, monthly
or annual averages. Presently nine (9) continuous air pollution monitoring stations are in operation in the metropolitan area. The location of these monitoring stations and the
pollutants monitored are indicated in fig.2.Over the years the results from these monitoring stations have been extensively used and reported on by researchers, students and
academics of the local universities and technikons in surveys and studies. The Air Pollution
Survey of The Greater Cape Town, 1977 to 1980", the exposure to lead amongst urban
school children in Cape Town by Y.E. von Shirnding and R.F. Fuggle 1986; the Assessment
of Air Pollution impact on vegetation in SA by Dr. A.T.Botha 1989, and more recently the
Cape Town Brown Haze Study¨ and the Milnerton Air Quality Project¨ are a few that can
be mentioned. The results of NOx and NO2 are given to the media on a daily basis. These
results are regularly published in a morning newspaper. When pollution episodes with
elevated levels of measured pollutants that exceed the SA guidelines occur there is usually
some enquiry from the media and public alike. Enquiries from the media usually result in
the publication of articles as well as discussions on the local radio stations.

AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES: Air quality guidelines are set by the Department of
Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT). These are based on EPA and other standards,
and often come under criticism for being too lenient when compared with the more
stringent standards adopted in Europe and the USA. Figure 3 is a comparison of the South
African and other international guidelines. The DEAT is presently revising these guidelines
and future guidelines for the critical pollutants will probably be more stringent. The CMC
will embark on developing an Air Quality Index to be used within the CMA. For this purpose
the CMC will adopt the air quality guidelines and banding system used in Great Britain. This banding system is divided into categories Low: Medium: High: Very high. These bands are
also associated with health related effects that have been well researched. This Air Quality
Index (Figure 4) will allow for easy non-technical reporting to the public and media alike.
The detail will be made available on the Internet and further detailed information will also
be available to the more serious enquirer.

FUTURE: The monitoring network should be expanded, especially to assess the air pollution problems experienced within informal settlement areas. Information on the full extent of
the problem within these areas will aid in the planning of a strategic air quality management system. Open path monitoring for the full range of pollutants including volatile organic compounds, should be implemented. The uses of air pollution indicators as well as a reliable method to monitor visible air pollution episodes need to be developed. Source and receptor computer modelling as a management tool for authorities must be developed.

INCINERATION: At the time of the implementation of the APPA within the Cape Town area, incineration was common practice in many commercial and industrial buildings. The
appliances used were hand fired and often not designed for the purpose. In fact, many a
hot water boiler or even steam boilers were used as incinerators, mainly to dispose of
papers, general refuse and even medical waste. These appliances were slowly removed
due to pressure from the control authorities and as a result of complaints of smoke and
nuisance received from the public. The declaration of Smokeless Zones limiting smoke
emission to 10% obscuration, which in fact relates to no visible smoke, further assisted in
the decommissioning of these appliances. The view of the Air Pollution Control Section was
that the alternatives to incineration were far more environmentally friendly. Two main
contributors to problems with incineration were that of the disposal of medical waste by
State and Provincial hospitals and that of the disposal of waste generated within the harbour complex. Regarding the latter and due to specific regulations, waste generated within the
harbour precinct was not permitted to leave the area and had to be disposed of within the confines of the then South African Railway and Harbour boundaries. Needless to say the
waste was set alight on the waste disposal site within the area. Furthermore, waste was
burned in any container that was strategically placed and in any appliance which could serve
as a makeshift incinerator. Each state and provincial hospital had an incinerator on site. The burning of medical waste became more difficult as the constituency of the waste changed
with the advent and use of more disposable items and the increased use of high and low
density plastics. The extensive use of rubber tubing during major surgical operations proved
to be problematic. At the time of approving appliances for use at hospitals the focus was on incinerators with after burners that can operate smokelessly and at temperatures exceeding 800oC. These types of appliances, when being operated within the designer specifications and
by a conscientious operator, were capable of incinerating the waste with a minimum of smoke emission. However, what happened in practice was remote from the theory. The appliances
were subject to major abuse, consistently being over-loaded, temperature settings being tampered with, burners being switched off to save fuel and to the fitting of non-matching replacement parts such as burner nozzles. The appliances were often remotely located and supervision, in many cases was only done when the authorities inspected the premises. This situation improved once an independent business venture became established and
systematically took over the medical waste disposal from the state and private hospitals. Presently within the CMA very few incinerators are being operated at hospitals and most of
the medical waste is collected and incinerators by private contractors. Since 7 October 1994 incineration has become a Scheduled Process in terms of Part II of the APPA. Specific
guidelines are in place addressing certain specifications such as operating temperatures, combustion retention times and emission standards, including standards for furans and dioxin. During March 1998 Legislation became more stringent and compelled the potential user of a
waste incinerator to do a full Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) including public participation. The advantage is that the community has a major input before and after the process. EIA’s are expensive and also result in a long drawn out process prior to a permit
being issued. This in a highly competitive market is seen as a disadvantage.

THE FUTURE OF INCINERATION: It is clear that the need for incineration of waste will
increase, as landfill sites become less available. Incineration of waste is always controversial. Most people will agree to medical or municipal waste incineration only until an application for
such installation is made within their community. Their views on incineration then undergo a radical change. The cost of incineration with the necessary sophisticated control equipment is high, but legislation must prescribe emission standards comparable with the best in the world. Incineration with the option of heat recovery, associated with power generation, may also be
a viable option.

CAPE TOWN BROWN HAZE: Every year during the period from March to August the CMA experience episodes of pollution, which are associated with calm atmospheric conditions and
low level inversions. These conditions give rise to a visible brown haze. This has been a
cause for concern for many years. Following futile pressure by the authorities on Government
to take a leading role in implementing a study into the cause of the haze, NACA eventually
came to the forefront and launched a pilot study performed by the Energy Research Institute (ERI) of the university of Cape Town to investigate the phenomenon. This was followed by a major study, also by the ERI. These studies were jointly funded by NACA, various industries
and local authorities. The aim of the study was to determine the source apportionment of the brown haze. The final report was published in 1997 and indicated the source of the brown
haze as well as recommended ways to combat future increases in air pollution levels. The
report attributed 65% of the visible degradation to vehicular emission, of which 49% is caused
by diesel driven vehicle emission. In a business as usual scenario, air pollution is projected to increase by 48% over the next decade. When these results were released, the CMC, being the authority responsible for the control of air pollution within the CMA, immediately set about devising an action plan to reduce the incidence of brown haze. The actions were divided into objectives that can be implemented locally and those that require national input. These
objectives and the actions taken are summarized in figure 5.As diesel vehicle emissions were classified as the major contributor to the brown haze, the CMC treated this as a high priority. Despite the poor, cumbersome and outdated legislation available, the CMC went ahead and appointed three teams to control the emissions from diesel driven vehicles. The launch of the programme started with the training of staff and a major public awareness campaign.. It is still early days to say what the impact of this programme is, but the CMC will certainly evaluate the situation in the future. All the other aspects of the programme to reduce the brown haze are
each a discussion on its own and cannot be dealt within the scope of this paper. However, fuel reformulation and motor vehicle emission control are important factors that need to be
addressed. The CMC is of the opinion that these aspects can only be addressed at National
level and has petitioned the various Ministers to devise an action plan with a time scale of implementation. The Vehicle Emissions Project is undertaking studies with a view to implement motor vehicle emission control, a project that was started in 1993. The delay in implementing
an action plan is of concern, as there is a steady increase in the vehicle population and subsequent emissions.

AIR POLLUTION CONTROL LEGISLATION: In February 1999 the CMC put forward a draft for uniform regulations for the control of smoke, dust and diesel vehicles within the CMA. At
present there are eight (8) sets of different regulations and worst of all in some areas of the
CMA, no regulations apply. This fits in with the recommendation of the brown haze report to update legislation and curb the emission of black smoke from industry. The current legislation used in South Africa is the Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act No. 45 of 1965. Since the promulgation, only cosmetic amendments have been made and one will appreciate that, while
the legislation was very good at the time, technology has dramatically improved and the
public demands the concern for more stringent control of air pollution. Back in about 1988 a
new Clean Air Act was drafted, approved by the National Air Pollution Advisory Committee (NAPAC) but was not submitted to the Minister and never published for comment. This is very unfortunate, since to protect the public and the environment any substance emitted into the atmosphere should be subject to control, a luxury not found in the present act. Again the CMC
has classified this as an item that can only be addressed at National level and has called upon
the Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism to revise the Act and to bring forth
legislation that will, way beyond the year 2000, effectively address the air pollution problems experienced in South Africa.

OTHER PROBLEMS WITHIN THE CMA: There are many other air pollution problems within the
CMA that are a cause of concern. To mention but a few is the Type Burning to recover scrap metal, lack of control of VOC’s and the emissions of chemicals to the atmosphere by the
textile and printing industries. In each case legislation is poor or non-existing.

CONCLUSION: In the future, the control of air pollution must be based on sound legislation. Industry is prepared to comply and technological advances are way ahead of the present legislation. Self-regulation is only practiced in a few concerned industries but effective controls
of air pollution will not be forthcoming unless legislated for. Legislation must lead the way!.